In 1066, after the death of Edward the Confessor, King of England, William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, invaded England, leading the Norman army to a decisive victory over the Anglo-Saxon forces and suppressing subsequent uprisings in England. From then on, England had a French king. The last known heir of William’s bloodline was Empress Matilda, who married the Count of Anjou. Their son, Henry II, became the King of England, incorporating Anjou and vast French territories into England's domain. This marked the origin of the Plantagenet dynasty.
After the loss of Anjou, two cadet branches of the Plantagenet dynasty—the House of Lancaster and the House of York—engaged in a prolonged civil war over the throne, known as the Wars of the Roses.
Since the emergence of the feudal system, conscription was practiced across Europe. When summoned by the king or local lords, peasants, freemen, and nobles aged 15 to 60 from rural or urban areas were required to bring weapons and armor corresponding to their wealth to join the army. These conscripts served as infantry, sergeants, or armed personnel under local officials appointed by the king or lords. However, from the late 13th century, this conscription system was gradually replaced by the monarchy in favor of the military services provided by magnates willing to serve the king. Vassals no longer served based on the lord’s demands but instead contributed part of their income to the lord’s treasury. In turn, lords hired retainers to fulfill their military obligations, forming private armies that served lords full-time. This new feudal system became known as the retinue system.
Land was no longer the basis of service. As a reward for becoming retainers, mercenaries sought to rely on their lords' influence in local and national politics. Comparatively, lacking a standing army, kings depended on the retinues of nobles to raise the military forces needed for war or to suppress internal rebellion. As a result, the king's authority weakened, while that of magnates increased significantly. When a king was incapable, ambitious or discontented magnates could even use their retainer networks to rebel against or control the monarchy.
Thus, in 1455, the House of York waged war to claim the throne and captured King Henry VI, marking the beginning of the Wars of the Roses. The name “Wars of the Roses” refers to the emblems of the two houses. David Hume wrote in The History of England:
"Men, influenced by their feelings, adopted different party symbols: the supporters of the House of Lancaster chose the red rose as their emblem, while the supporters of the House of York took the white rose as theirs. Thus, Europeans called this civil war the War of the Two Roses.”
In 1485, Henry Tudor of the Lancastrian faction emerged victorious at the Battle of Bosworth Field. He married Elizabeth, the heir of Edward IV of the Yorkist faction, uniting the two roses into the red-and-white Tudor Rose, symbolizing the merging of the two claims. On October 30, Henry was crowned King Henry VII of England at Westminster Abbey, marking the establishment of the Tudor dynasty.
During his reign, Henry VII issued the Statute of 1504, which significantly curtailed the retinue system. Under the Tudor dynasty, art, architecture, trade, exploration, and commerce flourished. Historians consider the Tudor dynasty a turning point in British history. The start of the Reformation, the establishment of the Church of England, and the pinnacle of the English Renaissance all reflect the significant historical impact of the Tudor dynasty.
Yet, the Tudor rose was not only vibrant in its beauty. Beneath its stem lay the strife of sibling betrayal, the tragedy of patricide and filicide, and a deeply scarred England.